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Warriors of Japan as Portrayed in the War Tales

Paul Varley

Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994; Pp. xiii, 276.

Review © 2002 Branislav L. Slantchev

In this study, Varley seeks to illuminate the evolution of the warrior code, the lord/vassal relationship, and the mode of warfare of ancient and medieval Japan, based on his reading of the famous warrior tales, gunki-mono.

The work is roughly divided in three parts. Part one covers the ancient period and centers around four war tales:

Varley traces the origin of what would later developed into a fully blown code of conduct in these tales, narrating episodes of loyalty, obligation, and vendetta. In addition, he marks the beginning of the "way of the bow and horse", the characterization of military arts that betrays the reliance on mounted archers to conduct warfare. In fact (something that I had not realized), it seems that the sword made a much later appearance, and may not have been a useful combat weapon ever, even in close one-on-one combat, where we are repeatedly told how one opponent shot many arrows at the other.

The second part of the book deals with some of the most famous and moving chapters of history, the emergence of the warrior class and the upheavals it caused in the effete and rarefied world of Heian aristocracy. The three core works are

Varley here distinguishes several interesting and persistent aspects of the warrior way. First, the unseemly reliance on arson and surprise, which ran contrary to the ritualized order of battle but which was more often successful than not. Second, the ever-faithful follower whose intense personal bond with his lord compels him to acts of bravery and self-sacrifice that would become the models of lord/vassal relationship.

Third, the tragic fate of the failed hero, the subject of a fine study by Ivan Morris, which is a persistent object of admiration and fascination. Varley, in contrast to Morris, identifies two types of failed heroes, one that perish because they are subdued by superior forces and although gallant beyond compare have no way but death; and the other, that perish because some personal "defect" disables them from proper functioning in society that is as much dominated by political maneuvering as by military valor. Morris concentrates of this latter kind, although he never labels these heroes has being "defective", much preferring to point to their sincerity as the ultimate cause of their downfall. Whatever the interpretation, there is no doubt that the failed hero is something to be investigated further. It is worth noting that Varley identifies Tamemoto (in Hôgen), Yoshihira and Yoritomo (in Heiji) as tragic failed heroes.

Another interesting transformation resulting from these upheavals noted by Varley is the emergence of warrior-courtiers (the Taira) and, at a later stage, of courtier-warriors (like Prince Morinaga, of Taiheiki fame). Varley also chooses to stress the profound pessimism of the period dominated by what was believed to be the "End of Buddhist Law," making the downfall of the Taira less a consequence of the wicked ways of Kiyomori than a metaphor for the fate of the nation that is about to enter a period of warrior-dominated life that eventually disintegrated with the end of the Kamakura bakufu, plunging Japan into an age of almost ceaseless warfare for centuries.

The final part (and chapter) of the book deals entirely with the Taiheki, the grand story of Go-Daigo's struggle to restore power to the Throne from 1318 to 1333 that ushered the destruction of the Kamakura bakufu and the obliteration of the Hôjô family; the brief and failed Kemmu Restoration that ended in 1336 with the Battle of Minatogawa where Ashikaga Takauji defeated the loyalists under Nitta Yoshisada (and where Kusunoki Masashige perished); and the protracted war between the northern and southern courts which lasted until 1392 and that saw the establishment of the Muromachi bakufu that would rule until the end of the 16th century. Unfortunately, only the first part has been translated in English, so much of the discussion cannot be adequately evaluated.

Varley spends little time on developing the early themes of the book and although he does treat suicide by disembowelment and the changing mode of warfare (siege, reliance on foot soldiers), he prefers to concentrate on description of the famous heroes of the period, Kusunoki Masashige and his son Masatsura. There is, however, almost no analysis here, and the rest of the book is simply a retelling of what the Taiheiki has to say about their exploits, especially Masashige's inventive guerilla style of fighting. Curiously, Varley passes over Prince Morinaga in favor of Nitta Yoshisada although the Prince's fate fits the tragic loser hero scenario much better given that he was the primary moving force during the dismal years of Go-Daigo's banishment to Oki and was later betrayed by his own father to suffer death at the hands of a lowly retainer of the Ashikaga. On the other hand, Ivan Morris inexplicably chooses not to talk at all about Yoshisada who, for all his failures as a strategist, must have been quite impressive for his loyalty to the imperial cause.

As a whole, Varley's book is an informative and well-researched study of the warrior tales and as such can be a valuable companion to reading the war tales, most of which are available in excellent English translations. Many of the insights will probably not be new to people intensely interested in Japanese history although this by no means diminishes the achievement of tracing their evolution in the tales. I particularly liked the explanation of the curious lack of emphasis on memorable battle scenes that makes the Taiheiki so different (and somewhat impersonal) in comparison with the vivid portrayals of such episodes in the Heike. (Varley's explanation is that since the earlier tales were developed to be recited by the blind monks, and as such had to provide a steady source of entertainment, were subject to embellishment to a degree that the lengthy Taiheiki was not.)

The weakness of the book is that it spends too much time on retelling. Huge portions of the book are nothing more than summarizing events, battles, and descriptions from the war tales. Although somewhat useful in terms of background material, for someone who has read the tales, the summaries are inevitably distracting. I would have much preferred to read more about the evolution of the lord/vassal relationship or how the ritual of seppuku came about since it was obviously not widespread during the Heian period, and was only practised by the Minamoto in the Gempei War, and yet became such an accepted and entrenched part of the way of the warrior by the time of the Taiheiki. Another interesting development that is insufficiently treated is the changing mode of warfare, although Varley does note the notorious unreliability of much of the medieval armies. Where Varley spends much of his time is on the fate of the failed hero, but Morris has already done that much more extensively. Still, the inclusion of several people Morris neglected adds a further dimension to this phenomenon that is worth exploring.

December 26, 2002

@book{varley-warriors,
    title={Warriors of Japan as Portrayed in the War Tales},
    author={Paul Varley},
    year={1994},
    publisher={University of Hawaii Press},
    address={Honolulu},
    isbn={0-8248-1601-3 (pbk.)}
    note={Index, bibliography, glossary, illustrations}
}