Ancient Iraq

Georges Roux

London: Penguin, 1992 (3rd Edition); Pages: xxii, 547

Ancient Iraq is a general introduction to the ancient history of the civilizations of the Tigris-Euphrates valley, usually called Mesopotamia, that lies today almost entirely in Iraq (hence the slight misnomer in the title). The region, in the words of the author, "forms a large, coherent, well-defined geographical, historical, and cultural unit," that slightly justifies an almost exclusive focus on it. Usually, the study of any one civilization cannot be fruitfully undertaken without taking stock of its interactions with neighbors. In the case of the ancient Mesopotamians, the task is somewhat simplified by the fact that they were the most advanced civilization in the region for about 3,000 years and whatever contact they had with nomadic neighbors, even conquest by the latter, usually entailed the conquerors' adoption of the Mesopotamian ways. This worked until the Hellenic age of Alexander, which heralded the decay of that glorious civilization.

This is a very well written book that does not shy from occasional detail but still manages to provide a useful bird's eye view of the period it covers. Although Roux is not an archaeologist, he is well respected in the fairly restrictive community of assyrologists, and his book certainly fills a regrettable gap between the highly specialized literature on the subject and the popular accounts that are usually superficial and not useful beyond introducing grammar school students to the topic. The book has a very extensive bibliography (in English, French, and German), several maps, many illustrations, a chronology of events, and photographs, making it an excellent point of departure.

The first two chapters deal with the geographic setting and the state of archaeological research in Iraq. It is most important to realize how much of life in the valley was dictated by the necessities imposed by nature. Indeed, their religion, ceremonies, and economy, and frequent political upheavals are all direct consequences of the limitations and imperatives of the geographical position. The second chapter is also fascinating in that it details the painstaking work involved with unearthing the ancient cities, details on how historians date the findings of various excavations, and furnish a glimpse into the uncertain but rewarding world of archaeological digs.

The next two chapters deal with the prehistoric and early historic periods, starting with the first settlements from the Paleolithic era through the Ubaid period (5000-3750 BCE). The features evident already during the Ubaid period --- advances in ceramics, agriculture, and religion --- have set the stage for the first known civilization and the emergence of first cities organized around shrines.

Chapters 5 through 8 deal with the Sumerians (2334-2700 BCE) and although there is a dearth of direct evidence, there is plenty of documents written at a later time that shed light on the fascinating people and their life, which consisted essentially of "wars between city-states and against foreigners" (p.138) but that still was culturally rich and so innovative that a modern sumerologist has published a list of 39 "Firsts" in recorded history (Samuel Noah Kramer's History Begins at Sumer) detailing the amazing achievements of that ancient civilization. It seems that by far the most important discovery was made during the Uruk period (c. 3300 BCE). This was the "epoch-making invention comparable only to the invention of agriculture in Neolithic times" (p.73) --- writing, which began as pictograms (found in the temple of E-Anna) and developed into the abstract and complex cuneiform system. The discovery of writing, albeit in the cumbersome form that was later replaced by phonetic alphabets, enabled the accumulation and transmission of knowledge that accounted for the quite amazing accomplishments of the archaic mathematicians, astronomers, engineers, doctors, and writers. Roux also goes into some detail regarding the Sumerian religion, mythology, and literature, seeing that glimpses of these provide further insight into the social organization and the outlook on life, concluding that the alleged 'pessimism' was not ethical but "had its roots in the natural conditions that prevailed in Mesopotamia" (p.102) and the great uncertainty induced by the frequently unpredictable weather.

Chapters 9 through 17 deal with the rise of Akkad under Sargon and the decline of Mesopotamia during the Kassite dynasty, covering the years 2334 to 1157 (the end of the Kassite rule). The following passage can usefully summarize most of the history described in this book:

"The rise and fall of the Akkadian empire [under Sargon, 2334-2279 BCE] offers a perfect preview of the rise and fall of all subsequent Mesopotamian empires: rapid expansion followed by ceaseless rebellions, palace revolutions, constant wars on the frontiers, and in the end, the coup de grâce given by the highlanders: Guti now, Elamites, Kassites, Medes or Persians tomorrow. A civilization based on agriculture and metal work in a country like Iraq [i.e. without metal or much timbre of its own, thereby necessitating their importation, which further meant either establishing direct control over Syria, Western Anatolia and Armenia, or securing trade routes in the North, usually through Jazirah, with access to the Mediterranean] required, to be viable, two conditions: perfect cooperation between the various ethnic and socio-political units within the country itself, and a friendly or at least a neutral attitude from its neighbors. Unfortunately, neither one nor the other ever lasted for any length of time." (p.159, bracketed notes mine)

This period is also very important because it encompasses the fall of Ur (end of third millennium BCE), which marks the end of Sumerian nation following the Amorite invasion (p.179). However, the Semites continued their rule and Babylonia witnessed a period of prosperity under Hammurapi (spelled "Hammurabi" in the book). This ruler, of course, is famous now for his introduction of the first known written Code of Laws. The Babylonian domination, however, quickly came to an end under the pressure of Hittites in Anatolia, Hurrians in Syria, and Kassites in Iran with the latter conquering Mesopotamia in 1595 BCE, ushering a long period of impotence. The fall of the Kassite dynasty in 1157 BCE precipitated by military defeat at the hands of the Elamites marks another turning point in history. (The occupation of Babylon at that time, by the way, was the occasion of the infamous humiliation when the Elamites carried off the god Marduk like the Hittites had more than 400 years before.)

What followed was a brilliant, but brief, revival after the Elamites withdrew (perhaps afraid of the growing power of the Medes and Persians in Iran), which saw the rule of Nebuchadrezzar I (1124-1103 BCE) who even recovered the statue of Marduk and returned the god to his city. The temporary success, however, did not alleviate the troubles of the Fourth Dynasty of Babylon, which had to deal with its perennial foe: Assyria.

Chapters 18 through 22 chronicle the rise and abrupt death of the Assyrian Empire (c. 911 to 609 BCE). When Adad-nirâri II (911-891 BCE) took the reigns in Assur, Assyria was nearing economic collapse and was saved from complete destruction only owing to the disunity among its enemies. The prince managed to shake loose the Arameans, recovering the Tigris valley and several cities in Jazirah, and subdued Babylon. As the author warns,

"It would be a mistake, however, to think of the Assyrian empire as a planned enterprise, and organized body formed by the deliberate addition of land after land, province after province to the original nucleus. The wars which the Assyrian monarchs waged year after year and which eventually resulted in the conquest of the greater part of the Near East, these wars which fill the annals and make us almost forget their other achievements, had different, though closely interwoven motives. [...] Some of them were defensive or preventive measures aimed at protecting from avowed or potential enemies the relatively narrow plain on either side of the Tigris which formed the core of Assyria and to keep open the vital trade roads, [... others were economic] in order to finance major architectural or agricultural projects, to provide their kings and their gods with the luxury to which they were entitled, [... and others were to satisfy] the greed and ambition of the Assyrian kings." (pp. 284-5)

Although Roux pays much attention to the incessant wars and the glorious rules of the various famous Assyrian kings like Sargon, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Ashurbanipal, he dedicates separate chapters to the political and cultural life --- the organization of state, and the advances in arts --- and to the scientific progress --- especially medicine, mathematics, and astronomy --- that mark the apogee of Nineveh.

The last three chapters, 23 through 25 deal with the long decline and eventual disappearance of the ancient Mesopotamian civilization. Starting with the destruction of Assyria under the combined attack of the Chaldean kings of Babylonia and their Medean allies in 612-690 BCE, through the Persian conquest in 539 under Cyrus, the obvious degradation began with Alexander's Hellenization, which marginalized the valley until almost every trace of the original civilization vanished under the Parthians and their successors, the Sassanians in the first six centuries of this era. The short reign of the Chaldeans (626-539 BCE), however, included the rule of Nebuchadrezzar II (604-562) and saw a return to the former splendor and glory that was Babylon, still evident a century after the eclipse of the dynasty when Herodotus (may have) visited the city. There is an interesting chapter detailing the city plan, buildings, ceremonies (especially the supremely important New Year Festival), and the economic life (which featured such modern institutions as banking and credit).

The Epilogue attempts to answer the question of why this remarkably advanced civilization vanished so completely that it was virtually unknown until the excavations that began during the 19th century. The answer is eminently plausible:

"...[T]he decay and death of the Mesopotamian civilization can be ascribed to three main causes: the absence of a national government, the foundation by Alexander and his successors of new cities competing with and eventually superseding the older settlements, and, above all, the profound ethnic, linguistic, religious and cultural changes introduced by successive waves of invaders --- Persians, Greeks, Arameans, pre-Islamic Arabs --- who could neither be kept at bay not assimilated." (p. 423)

Obviously, none of these reasons is sufficient and the question can be rephrased slightly to ask why the civilization failed to adapt during the rapid changes and upheavals that began with the Greek period. Roux ventures a guess which amounts to an argument of ossification, charging that the Mesopotamians were shackled by their antirational epistemology which did not permit the inquisitiveness required for further advance (a problem that the Greeks, by implication did not have), which, in turn, is required for any synthesis of knowledge. Despite their long lists of things and precise calculations, the Mesopotamians were eminently incapable of standing up to these new challenges.

There is something not quite satisfying with this explanation, especially since the estimate of Greek ingenuity is arguable. One should note that many of the Greek advances in science and philosophy, to which we owe the foundations of the modern world, were, in fact, adaptations and borrowings from Babylonian knowledge, almost always without attribution. In some way, the Greeks are the most famous plagiarists who, by the virtue of their enormous written output, have overwhelmed any potential for disentangling the original contributions. It is not the purpose of this section to argue the vices of the Greeks but rather to cast some doubt on the supposed free thinking that advantaged them. In any case, the answer about the causes of the death of Mesopotamian civilization must await further explorations.

November 30, 2001

@book{roux-92,
 author    = {Georges Roux},
 title     = {Ancient Iraq},
 edition   = {3rd},
 year      = {1992},
 publisher = {Penguin Books},
 address   = {London},
 isbn      = {0-14-012523-X (pbk.)},
 note      = {Index, bibliography, chronology, maps, illustrations, Pp. xxii, 547}
}